Miracles |
Miracles: what are they, could they take place, and is it ever rational to believe that they have done so? [An article obtained from http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ball0368/miracles.html]
The word miracle has had a long etymological
history; interestingly its everyday usage has now returned to that of the
Latin root miraculum. When we talk about the German economic miracle or a
miracle stain remover, we are not suggesting supernatural causes, but only
that these things are objects of wonder, which is exactly the
meaning of the Latin. The miracles of Jesus, to take the most well known
example, are of course qualitatively different (some would argue that the
Gospel miracles were either allegorical or psychosomatic, however I am not
here arguing for any particular interpretation of religious texts, but rather
investigating miracles in the sense understood by the orthodox theology of
Semitic religions). It is difficult to pin down in words precisely what this
qualitative difference is, and this is because of the changing interpretations
of two millennia. The Oxford English Dictionary defines this sort of miracle
as: an extraordinary event attributed to some supernatural agency.
But extraordinary doesnt quite capture the difference between
an impressively flourishing economy and Lazarus being raised from the dead.
The word miracle has been defined in many different ways, I intend
to look at a few of those best suited to philosophic investigation. We shall
see that any definition of miracle is closely linked to our
definition of what a law of nature is. Here then are some definitions
of a miracle:
1] [something] done by divine power apart from the order generally
followed by things - St. Thomas Aquinas [1]
2] [something whose production exceeds] the power of visible and corporeal
nature only - Pope Benedict XIV [2]
3] an event involving the suspension of natural law - Alastair
McKinnon [p49]
4] a transgression of a law of nature by a particular volition of the
Deity, or by the interposition of some invisible agent - David Hume
[3]
5] [differentiates between] the contingency concept and the violation
concept- R.F.Holland [p56]
6] a non-repeatable counter-instance [to a natural law] - Richard
Swinburne [p78]
7] an exception to the natural order of things caused by the power
of God- Richard Purtill [p192]
The first two definitions are in terms of the scholastic Aristotelian philosophy.
Aristotles physics, based on observation and teleological thinking,
assigned natures to all objects which prescribed what they would do when
left to themselves. The actions of an agent could cause an object to move
in ways outside its nature (violent motion) according to the power of the
agent. The distinction between Aquinas and Benedicts definitions
is that Benedict allows any non-corporeal being to work miracles, whereas
Aquinas reserves this for God alone. In the world view of these philosophers
a supernatural miracle is no different in type from a man throwing a stone
up in the air, both are causing objects to act outside of their natures,
the difference is only one of magnitude. Of course there were other philosophical
standpoints in the Ancient world, such as the atheistic atomism of Epicurus,
in which miracle have no place. The understanding of the majority of the
population, in so much as it relates to philosophy, probably inclined towards
an Aristotelian viewpoint which see purpose in nature. A first century Jew
therefore would understand reports of miracles as signs of God at work, the
only possible alternative might be that suggested about Jesus by the teachers
of the law in Mark.3.22, that the power at work in the miracles was that
of the Devil instead. The options open to our Jew, or indeed to a Roman hearing
good reports of the Emperor Vespasians miraculous healings in Alexandria
[4], were only which supernatural being might have caused
these miracles; there was no reason to suggest that somehow miracles
werent possible and therefore reject the reports immediately; indeed
I can imagine no grounds on which to base such a suggestion within their
world view (which I am suggesting would be along the lines of Aristotles
physics). However, in our 20th Century Western society, it would be considered
perfectly reasonable for someone with theistic beliefs to deny the possibility
of the miraculous.
Just as we need to look at a first century Jews world view to understand
his reaction to miracles, we must look at our own basic world view in order
to understand and evaluate arguments concerning miracles. The general change
in paradigm from a physics of natures to one of more general
laws of nature happened as scientist began to find mathematical
relationships which seemed to describe and even predict the motions of planets,
projectiles and gradually more and more of the world. Initially these scientists
conducted their research in an almost religious manner, believing that they
were beginning to read the language in which God had made the universe ordered
and understandable. During The Enlightenment science and religion increasingly
began to clash and divide, partly because the Church had taken Aristotles
philosophy on board as part of its dogma. This schism between religion
and science led to a new questioning of miracles, events which appear
to challenge the order and understandability of the universe revealed by
scientific method.
The third definition of miracle given, talks of a miracle as a suspension
of a natural law; McKinnon defines natural laws as highly generalised
shorthand description of how things do in fact happen [p49].
These definitions lead to a powerful form of argument that miracles are not
just physically impossible, but that the very concept of a miracle is
self-contradictory, since substituting in the definition of natural law,
leads to a miracle being an event involving the suspension of how things
do in fact happen, which is clearly inconsistent. Furthermore, if the
natural laws we use do not describe a miraculous event then they are inadequate,
and we must formulate new laws which do describe the miracle; once this has
been done, there is nothing special about the event designated
miracle, it is merely one of many events described by our natural
laws. R.F.Holland expresses this argument well: laws of nature can
be formulated or reformulated to cope with any eventuality, and would-be
miracles are transformed automatically into natural occurrences the moment
science gets back on track to them [p59].
Is it possible to salvage anything, in the face of these objections to miracles?
R.F.Holland, in the fifth definition given, splits the concept of a miracle
in two. Clearly his contingency concept, referring to extraordinary coincidences
seemingly in answer to prayer or need, is still valid. If someone wishes
to believe that a set of coincidences were brought about by God without violating
physical laws, then it is difficult to produce an argument which could shake
this believe, short of an attempt to disprove the existence of God. A certain
amount of stage managing seems necessary on Gods part to bring about
the coincidences. Subtle tweaks here and there might not be detectable, but
inevitably they must involve violation of natural laws, and McKinnons
definition has made this logically impossible. Events, however, depend not
only on natural laws but also on initial conditions, and study of deterministic
chaos in the past few decades has reveal just how dependent non-linear systems
are to small changes in their initial states. For a theist, even one rejecting
violation miracles, God presumably still gets to choose the initial conditions,
and therefore could conceivably choose them to bring about the required
coincidences. This explanation of course brings us into the theology of
predetermination and Gods foreknowledge, which is clearly beyond the
scope of this essay, however the point remains that initial conditions could
explain contingency miracles. Strangely, R.F.Holland also holds on to the
violation concept of miracles. He gives an example of a horse which we know
from observation is receiving no nourishment and yet continues to flourish
as if well fed. A self-sustaining horse is, he claims, conceptually impossible
for us and yet at the same time empirically certain because we have been
carefully studying it. Instead of rejecting the concept that horses need
food to survive which has served well for every other horse in history and
continues to serve well for other horses, Holland thinks that the price
is too high and it would be better to be left with the inconsistency
[p64].
Holland applies this principle more widely, and concludes that Jesus turning
water into wine in John.2.9 could logically be true. I dont think
Hollands argument is wholly convincing, but his decision to hold on
to a useful concept is understandable. If we suddenly come across an apple
which fall up off a tree instead of down, (as well as being extremely surprised!)
we would be loath to reject our concept of gravity which has worked so well
and continues to work for all things we experience except this one apple.
The reason why we feel this way, I think, is that the meaning of natural
law differs slightly from our current definition. Natural laws are formulated
by a process of observation and experimentation,
Ockhams razor
is the principle by which scientists choose the simplest known formula compatible
with experiments, the laws are always corrigible if further experiments are
more in favour of a different formula. Einsteins relativity theory
has replaced Newtonian gravity as the preferred natural law because every
experiment sensitive to the differences in the theories supports Einstein;
the theory accurately predicts the results of the experiments. With relativity
the theory came before experiments showed that Newtonian gravity was inadequate,
however with quantum mechanics, theory was developed in response to classical
mechanics failure to correctly predict experimental results (such as black-body
radiation). The formulators of quantum theory had good reason to reject classical
mechanics and search for a new theory to match their results. Would they
be equally justified in searching for new theories in response to Hollands
horse, Jesus turning water into wine or an up-falling apple? The difference
between the situations is that which both black-body radiation and an up-falling
apple are counter-instances to established theories, the former is a repeatable
experimental phenomena while the later is a singular event. Richard Swinburne
terms such an event a non-repeatable counter-instance [p78].
The problem is that natural laws (or to be more precise our theories modelling
natural laws) seem to describe what happens in a regular and predictable
way. When what happens is entirely irregular and unpredictable, its occurrence
is not something describable by natural laws [p78].
Swinburne points out that if we could reformulate our laws to include this
strange occurrence then, since natural laws predict as well as describe (in
fact their descriptive power is really one of predicting the past) they would
predict instances of this occurrence given a similar situation - but then
the event would be regular and predictable in contradiction to our definition
of it! Whether irregular and unpredictable things do occur is a matter for
experience, but they do not appear to be in any way logically impossible.
Perhaps we should like everything to be predictable, and hence define natural
laws as McKinnon does, however that is not within the scope of science to
prove or disprove, since the problem is in fact that of sciences scope.
A few more definitions of natural law help to clarify these ideas. A
formula
[such] that virtually invariably its predictions are true and
that any exceptions to its operation cannot be accounted for by another formula
which could be taken as a law [Swinburne, p80]. The laws of nature,
we must say, describe the ways in which the world - including, or course,
human beings - works when left to itself, when not interfered with
[J.L.Mackie, p87]. Non-repeatable counter-instance, outside the scope of
these laws, could logically occur. These counter-instances need not in fact
be due to God, or any other spiritual being, they could be totally without
reason. If this were the case, then our universe would not be completely
the place of order and understandability we think it to be, but one tainted
with some degree of chaos. Miracles, counter-instances due to a personal
being, are not such a challenge to an ordered world view since they would
at least be the products of reason and within the realms of explanation (if
personal explanations are valid), though only in a religious sense. To conclude
this section, the arguments which at first seemed so shattering to belief
in miracles have faded away after careful scrutiny of our definitions of
miracle and natural law. All that has been shown is that a miracle can be
a coherent and consistent logical concept; whether we can ever have sufficient
evidence to justifiably believe a miracle has taken place is another matter,
which will now be considered [5]. Ironically, much of the
understanding of natural laws above, which has helped restore miracles as
logical concepts, has its roots in the empiricism of David Hume. Humes
causality is one in which cause and effect are frequently seen in conjunction,
but nothing can be said about whether they are connected. Natural laws therefore
do not have the same sort of nomological necessity, and therefore it is much
easier to think in terms of counter-instances to them. The irony is that
Hume argued very forcibly against the believability of miracles, and section
X of his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding forms the starting point
for all philosophic discussion of this topic. I shall first clearly outline
Humes argument against the believability of miracles, and then consider
its validity. The argument begins with the basic axiom of his philosophic
method, though experience be our only guide in reasoning concerning
matters of fact; it must be acknowledged, that this guide is not
infallible
a wise man, therefore, proportions his belief to the
evidence [para 87]. In line with this method, he proceeds to consider
the process of weighing up the evidence of human testimony. Evidence,
derived from witnesses and human testimony
is regarded either as a
proof or a probability according as the conjunction between any particular
kind of report and any kind of object has been found to be constant or
variable [para 88]. This criteria may seem strange, but Hume is just
being consistent with his views on causation; he must further assert that
experience shows that men have at least some inclination towards correct
and truthful testimony, in order to allow this sort of evidence any value
at all. Next he must consider in what sort of ways this evidence might conflict:
This contrariety of evidence, in the present case, may be derived from
several different causes; from the opposition of contrary testimony; from
the character or number of the witnesses; from the manner of their delivering
their testimony; or from a union of these circumstances. We entertain a suspicion
concerning any matter of fact, when the witnesses contradict each other;
when they are but few, or of a doubtful character; when they have an interest
in what they affirm; when they deliver their testimony with hesitation, or
on the contrary, with too violent asseverations. These certainly are
important considerations when judging human testimony. Moving towards the
subject of miracles, Hume claims that the evidence, resulting from
the testimony, admits of a diminution, greater or less, in proportion as
the fact is more or less unusual [para 89].
He is now ready to unleash the full force of his objection: it is a
miracle, that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been
observed in any age or country. There must, therefore, be a uniform experience
against every miraculous event, otherwise the event would not merit that
appellation. And as a uniform experience amounts to a proof, there is here
a direct and full proof, from the nature of the fact, against the existence
of any miracle; nor can such a proof be destroyed, or the miracle rendered
credible, but by an opposite proof, which is superior [para 90, my
underlining]. In short, no testimony is sufficient to establish a miracle,
unless the testimony be of such a kind, that its falsehood would be more
miraculous [para 91].
In part II, Hume continues with four reasons why a miracle has never been
established on sufficient evidence. Firstly he claims that no miracle has
ever been performed in a public manner in an important part of the world
(meaning, I guess, Western Europe) and been backed up by sufficient good
and intelligent witnesses with reason not to lie - which are the criteria
needed to give full assurance of the testimony. Secondly, the passion
of surprise and wonder, arising from miracles, being an agreeable emotion,
gives a sensible tendency towards the belief of those events, from which
it is derived [para 93].
Furthermore people might be tempted to knowingly lie concerning a miracle
to support their religious position or from pure self-interest, and the
many instances of forged miracles
ought reasonably to beget a suspicion
against all revelations of this kind [para 93]. Thirdly he claims that
miracles are observed chiefly among ignorant and barbarous nations
[since] fools are industrious in propagating the imposture [para 94].
Fourthly he notes that miracles are claimed by the adherents of many religions
to support their dogma, and therefore they invalidate each other since in
matters of religion, whatever is different is contrary [para 95]. What
response is there to these powerful arguments? To begin with, the (im)probability
of miracles occurring depends very much on ones basic world view. As
shall be expanded below, Hume offers no advise to someone who thinks they
have personally experienced a miracle, and this must be deliberate: he thought
this would never happen because his world view already excluded miracles.
Equally, to a theist, the incredibility of miracles
is not in
itself greater than the event, call it either probable or improbable, of
the two following propositions being true: namely, first that a future state
of existence should be destined by God, for his human creation; and secondly,
that, being so destined, he should acquaint them with it
In describing
the improbability of miracles, [Hume] suppresses
all those circumstances of extenuation, which result from our knowledge of
the existence, power and disposition, of the Deity
[William Paley, p43]. Richard Swinburne
draws a useful analogy which helps clarify the importance of background belief:
If we have already good grounds for believing that there is a gorilla
loose in snowy mountains, we require less by way of evidence of footprints
to show that he has visited a particular place [p151].
An important criticism is that part of Humes argument seems to be circular,
when he moves from assuming uniform experience against miracles
to a general proof against their existence. Richard Purtill suggests that
for Hume to argue for the conclusion that miracles do not happen by
assuming that miracles, under whatever description, dont happen, is
just to argue in a circle or beg the question [p191].
Even if we allow this assumption of uniform experience, Humes own causation
produces problems, because without the concept of necessary connection,
the inductive argument from the observation All so far observed
As have been Bs to the generalisation All As are Bs is
far from secure, and it would be most misleading to call this a proof
[J.L.Mackie, p91]. Indeed all that Humes uniform experience
amounts to is no more than a merely numerical universal conjunction, and
Antony Flew recognises that any attempt to use our knowledge, or presumed
knowledge, of such a merely numerical universal proposition as an evidential
canon by which to justify the outright rejection of any testimony to the
occurrence of a falsifying exception would be a preposterous piece of question
begging [p97].
In response to Humes list of four reasons to discredit miracle testimonies:
the first point seems to be that no precedence has been set by at least one
miracle which is easily acceptable - but this is open to debate, and some
of the miracles that Hume mentions later on, such as that of the tomb of
Abbé, might be good candidates. The second point makes good sense,
though Hume does exaggerate; clearly religion fraudulence seems to have taken
place in the past, and so it is reasonable to be suspicious of any witnesses
and accept only the most credible ones. Humes third point is a little
harsh and intellectually snobbish, though again it is valid to a degree;
there are, however, conceivable reasons why miracles might be more frequent
among less advanced peoples, such as their having more pressing need and
more fervent prayer than the more advanced and more comfortable nations.
The final point is an interesting one, but not rigorous enough, since it
requires a number of assumptions: that a miracle validates completely all
the dogma of the group in whose context it occurs; that only a single God
works miracles;
that evidence for the miracles is equal in the different religious traditions.
The first assumption only seems valid for certain sorts of miracles, such
as the duel of Elijah and the priests of Baal in 1Kings.18, or the resurrection
of Jesus. The second assumption is not necessary, and even monotheistic religions
allow a Devil with power to affect the world, and hence work miracles in
the context of rival religions to trick people (the classic angle of light
disguise). It remains to be proven that the third assumption is valid, and
certainly many religions, Islam being a prime example, do not have a miracle
tradition like Judaism and Christianity, and few have anything like the level
documented evidence. In conclusion, David Humes arguments contain
circularity and unsupported assumptions, and so are not convincing. However,
many of the points he raises should rightly cause us to be suspicious of
testimonies, and particularly religious testimony. Conspicuous in its absence
from Hume is any discussion of the part played by direct experience (say
our memories) and physical traces (such as seven baskets of bread crumbs),
which might reasonable have bearing on our analysis of an event. Even these
types of evidence are not certain sources of knowledge, since we may be fooled
or construct false memories. Miracles, at least in view of the definitions
suggested in this essay, are logically possible. There might in fact be reason
to believe that a miracle had taken place, though it does not seem possible
to construct a simple formula to deduce this from any set of evidence. In
reality we must juggle all the various strands of evidence, including testimony,
personal experience and physical traces; our personal world view, and the
rigidity of our adherence to it, must rightly have a powerful effect on our
eventual conclusions. For this reason, two intelligent people, given the
same set of evidence, could arrive at opposite positions regarding the miraculous
nature of an event, yet at the same time equally reasonable positions of
belief.
Answering the question posed in the title of this essay: a miracle is an
unpredictable (at least scientifically) exception to nature as it is described
most of the time by mathematical laws, brought about by the power of a
supernatural being. A miracle is a coherent and possible concept and it could
be perfectly rational to believe that some particular miracle had taken place,
though often people believe in miracles blindly and irrationally.
Footnotes
1. Summa Contra Gentiles 3.101.1
2. Quoted on page 3 of Miracles, ed. R.Swinburne, Macmillan,
1989 (most of my quotations are from this anthology and shall be given in
the form [p3] - Its quite an easy read and worth getting out,
the editor is a lecturer here at Oxford, and is supposed to be the last major
philosopher of religion who still believes in God - he could probably do
with our prayers! )
3. In the footnote to paragraph 90 of The Enquiry into Human
Understanding (all further quotations from this book shall be given in the
form [para 90])
4. In Tacitus, The Histories, 4.81
5. I offer this only as a footnote, since I think the arguments
given in favour of the logical possibility of miracles are valid. However,
even if one finds reason to reject this reasoning, and deny the possibility
of violation miracles, there may still be some room for God to interact directly
in the world, if the laws of nature by statistical not universal. This is
the case in quantum mechanics, which even bends fundamental laws such as
the conservation of momentum according to the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. Suppose Jesus was stepping out onto the water: God could arrange
the motions and positions of all the particles in the universe which might
influence this situation (those for whom that event is contained within their
light cones) such that there is no additional net force down on Jesus, and
thus he could walk across the water. Each particle would have an extremely
small probability to be in the state God arranged, and the combination of
the independent probabilities of all these particles would amount to an
incredibly small probability, however if the universe has a very long future,
God could still balance the probability books eventually!
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